chapter2

CHAPTER II. CONFUCIAN INFLUENCE ON EAST ASIAN RHETORIC AND COMPOSITION

Confucius

Confucius (551 - 479 B.C.) is widely recognized as the first great philosopher and educator in the history of China. His influence in East Asian academia is much like a combination of those of Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle in the Anglo-European and Western Hemisphere regions. It is inconceivable to discuss East Asian rhetoric and culture without exploring his ideas.

The era in which Confucius lived was the warring Spring and Autumn period ( 722 - 481 B.C.) when China was divided into many states. The Chou dynasty (1122 - 255 B.C.) during which Confucius was born was embattled at that time, but still held onto its past glory. Frequent wars and battles occurred throughout the country. Because China was in a transitional period moving from a chaotic to a unified country, it had a great need for political, socio-economic, and cultural order. In spite of the turmoil, ancient China enjoyed great prosperity under the Chou Dynasty which was the highest point ever seen in China of humanism and rationalism. Wan (1980) defined this era as the period of uncertainty and emancipation. The Chou dynasty gave rise to rich intellectualism and freedom of thought.

Confucius was born in 551 B. C. His father died when he was three years old, leaving his family in extreme poverty. His mother died, too, when he was seventeen. Confucius had to support himself from an early age, so he did various jobs from being an apprentice to trading. Unable to receive any formal education, he became a self-educated man familiarizing himself with the six arts, major subjects during the Chou dynasty: rites, music, archery, chariot-driving, reading and writing (that is, calligraphy which emphasizes the beauty of form, and poetry writing, not rhetoric), and arithmetic. Later, he was able to get minor positions in a local government, for example, as a master of ceremonies.

At the age of twenty-two, Confucius began his life as a teacher. He became famous nationwide as an excellent educator, and students gradually gathered around him. He opened his own private school when he was thirty years old. Meanwhile, he engaged in various political activities, and once became acting Prime Minister of Lu state. He proclaimed himself to be an admirer of antiquity and traditions. Thus, the traditions of the past provided him with wisdom and knowledge. Indeed, his ideas and philosophy are based on the experiences and sayings of past kings and sages. He admitted that he did not develop his own ideas. At the age of fifty-five, he had to leave Lu state due to a change in the political climate of the state, and began to travel all over China. As many sophists in ancient Greece did, he journeyed from state to state with his pupils for nine years, sometimes finding himself caught in the middle of a war.

The aim of Confucius' trip was to obtain an appointment to a high-ranking government job. However, no dukes proposed that Confucius be given the position of a high ranking officer although they highly appreciated his political ideology. He was a morally strict man like Socrates and would not serve those who did not fulfil his ethical ideals. As a result, it was not easy for him to find a decent job which fit to his ethical standards. Thus, he spent most of his time teaching and studying, especially in his old age. He died at the age of seventy-two.

He ran his school in the way that the peripatetic school in ancient Greece was run (Wan 1980): there was no formal classroom. While he roamed around with his disciples, he held conversations with them. He maintained that every one should have equal opportunity in having education. He taught his students the importance of ethics when one was to be a politician. Perhaps because Confucius lived in the middle of an age of numerous wars, he focused his vision on a harmonious society. In keeping with this vision, he founded his teaching on four key principles: a hierarchical relationship among people, the family as the basic societal unit, In ( , love), and an emphasis on education. His ethics is based on a perspicacity of responsibility, honesty, and conscientiousness. The goal of his teachings is designed to cultivate a man of superior intellectual and moral qualities (Wan 1980). Confucius believed that the solution to China's social and political problems could be found in a revival of the early Chou (1122 - 781 B. C.) values (Dawson 1982). The historical perspective is highly esteemed in his teachings and learning. Thus, he maintained that the past is important in the sense that the present can be understood by the interpretation of the past.

No evidence has been found that he wrote his own books (Wan 1980). This fact reflects his stance of how to learn: individuals' own interpretations and thoughts are much less valuable than the wisdom of past-sages. Like Socrates, he did not generate his own ideas and philosophy through the written text. Instead, he edited six ancient Chinese classics, namely, the Book of Poetry, the Book of History, I Ching, the Book of Rites, the Book of Music, and the Spring and Autumn Annals. These six books were Confucius' teaching materials and have become referential sources for the Confucian classics. Confucian scholars of the succeeding generations completed four books of Confucian teachings: the Great Learning, the Analects, the Book of Mencius, and the Doctrine of the Mean. For example, Confucius taught his students the past traditions orally, and his disciples of the succeeding generations recorded his teachings in the Analects. This fact can be sustained by the appearance of a word, the honor of being referred to as ĄŽMaster,' which appears at the beginning of the episode in the Analects. It is generally acknowledged that the Analects is the most dependable anthology about his doctrines and cardinal principles (Wan 1980). For this reason, the Analects is used as a major source for reviewing rhetorical aspects of Confucianism in this study.

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Confucianism The relationship of Confucianism to intellectual development in East Asia is quite different from how those of Hellenism and Judaism are related to the issues of the rhetoric of Anglo-Europe and the Western hemisphere. The focus of Confucianism is not on achieving life after death as in religion; rather its concern is mainly on the human world and condition. So, the boundaries of Confucianism are the human state (Peerenboom 1990), and the word, philosophy, more appropriately describes Confucianism although some Confucian scholars consider it a religion (Chai & Chai 1965). But even though Confucianism is concerned with the human state, it does not primarily intend to delineate justice, human rights, freedom, and similar concepts which often appear in Western philosophy. Instead, it attends to an aesthetic appreciation (Li) of harmony, and of the quality of life. Young people are taught to emulate the ideal models of behavior established by exemplars, especially those models from past sages and kings. In essence, "what is being demanded is a willingness to participate in collective living" (Peerenboom 1990). Its ultimate goal is to establish harmony in society based on good human relationships among social beings, and so its influence on political and social ethics and on educational issues is significant.

Confucianism is founded on four cardinal principles which guide people to live in morally-right ways in the world. They are In ( , humanity, love), I ( , faithfulness and justice), Li ( , propriety, rite, or ritual), and Ji ( , wisdom or liberal education). The aim of these four principles is to cultivate the mind-and-heart and to perform subsequent right action-- the Chinese character, shin ( ) means both mind and heart without showing any distinction between them. Its concept is holistic. Most Confucian teachings are developed around these four principles. Because I and Ji have less influence on rhetoric than In and Li, this discussion only focuses on the two key concepts, In and Li. In addition to these two concepts, Chung Yong ( , the doctrine of the mean), which provides Li with its norm, also will be discussed.

Confucianism instructs people to be morally sound individuals, which will then enable them to reach good political decisions. Individuals cultivate their ethos following the Confucian teaching in a paragon, the four hierarchically ordered phases of Soushin- Jaega-Chiguk-Pyungchunha ( ), which explains how individuals should exert themselves to develop their speech /behavior in each stage. In Chinese, Soushin- Jaega-Chiguk-Pyungchunha means disciplining self, leading family well, governing the country successfully, and harmonizing the world. Its whole structure consists of four concentric circles. The smallest circle, sushin, refers to disciplining self. Its boundary is personal and, being closest to the center, is the foundation for building a good ethos. The next larger circle is Jaega whose boundary is the family. The larger circle of Chiguk is concerned with governing the country, and that of Pyungchunha is to harmonize the world. Naturally, the outer circles are more social than the inner circles, but there is no clear distinction intended between social and private issues. This process shows little distinction between self and society (Bretzke 1995). The fulfilment of each earlier phase is a necessary and sufficient condition for moving on to the next phase. The role shift occurs when individuals move up the hierarchical ladder of the social structure. Figure 1 below shows the four phases of practicing Confucian ethos.

Confucian teaching avers that those who have successfully completed the first stage of Soushin (cultivating self or a good ethos) can do well in the second stage of Jaega (leading the

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Figure 1

Confucian Context of Practicing Ethos

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family well). On the other hand, those who fail to cultivate a good self are not able to perform satisfactorily in the next stages and are not qualified to govern the nation and harmonize the world. Only those who highly cultivate their personal ethos are qualified to rise to the top of the hierarchical ladder of the social structure. In this way, developing self is directly connected to governing the nation. This structure affects the formation of holistic thinking of the East Asian mind; it does not clearly distinguish objectivity from subjectivity. While it blurs the distinction between ĄŽI' and ĄŽothers', it also discloses that individual cultivation of self directly influences the prosperity of society.

As has been seen, Confucianism postulates that an individual's cultivation of a good ethos, a life-time process of education, is the foundation of the nation. The ultimate goal is mastered through mastering the Do ( , the Way of Heaven). While learning, truthfulness is the foremost issue that individuals must consider. Even rhetorical activities must be supported, either before or after, by one's own trustful actions; the power of actions is based on the speaker's virtues, virtues that take the middle in any situation. Confucianism assumes that figuring out the middle is a matter of training the self and that it takes a long time to master it. Thus, there is a great emphasis on the cultivation of the self in order to master Do (the Way of Heaven); as a result, education plays an important role in cultivating the ethos. In other words, the purpose of learning is to achieve Do. It is done by working at the four levels of achievement, self, family, country, and world. In each sphere one works for In, Li, and the doctrine of the mean. Rhetoric is considered less important as long as the meaning of a message is understandable, an attitude quite unlike the niche of rhetoric in the North American and Anglo-European cultures which view rhetoric and meaning as nearly equally important. Language is simply the medium in Confucianism.

The Confucian context relies on an interdependent relationship between things/humans. Hall and Ames (1987) introduce Confucianism as a philosophy which demands an ontology of events, not one of essences. Because the fundamental assumption in the Confucian context is that any situation consists of ten thousand things (that is, numerous things), the situation is constantly changing. The language required to describe the situation focuses on process and interdependence rather than substance. Hall and Ames explain:

Understanding human events [in Confucianism] does not require recourse to qualities, attributes, or characteristics. Thus, in place of a consideration of the essential nature of abstract moral virtue, the Confucian is more concerned with an explication of the activities of specific persons in particular contexts (15).

Thus, it is natural that the Confucian context is relatively holistic. It is concerned with how to recognize the ways in which the numerous elements work in a situation. It is assumed that looking at individual parts separately does not lead to an integral comprehension of the situation because each individual element keeps changing and so is unexplainable through language.

Confucianism assumes that language has no real substance. Language can only convey general or non-substantive meanings because as things change so does their relationship change and that causes more changes in other things. The only reasonable goal, therefore, is to perfect one's self -- thereby coming to an understanding of how the world works inductively or through intuition rather than by taking apart things and trying to see how they function. Tu (1993) states that because Confucianism believes that language does not automatically bring audience understanding, understanding can only be achieved through painful self-cultivation over a long period. And so Confucianism tends to be anti-rhetorical. It does not encourage the individual to develop the art of speaking/writing as is done with Western rhetorical instructions. Furthermore, as abstract Confucian concepts and principles are delivered in short phrases, an understanding of their meanings depends on the individual's ability. To understand the full meanings of the concepts and principles, individuals are expected to develop the ability to recognize the profound meanings of presented words which describe the complex context. Therefore, the responsibility for understanding the text lies with the audience.

The ability to precisely realize a (con)text is to be cultivated through Confucian learning which is illustrated by Confucius' own learning process. Confucius said:

At fifteen I set my heart-and- mind on learning; at thirty I had planted my feet firm upon the ground (established my stance); at forty I no longer suffered from perplexities (I had no doubts about the world); at fifty I realized the myung (Way) of Chun (Heaven); at sixty I heard them with docile ears (my ear was attuned); and at seventy, I could follow the dictates of my own heart-and-mind (shin); for what I desired no longer overstepped the boundaries of right (the Analects, 2/4).

Although the meaning of this quote may seem ambiguous to a Western audience, it contains the fundamental assumption of cultivating ethos in the process of learning. Cultivating ethos becomes the center of learning, and the aim of learning is not to develop the rhetorical ability of delivering one's own ideas in the Western sense, but to acquire the ability to make intuitive and holistic moral judgments. The final goal of learning is to become a Chun-zha (Heavenly man) through taking Do (the Way of Heaven), a perfect persona who does not necessarily have to master eloquence but must have a good ethos. It is this kind of learning Confucius himself promoted. At the beginning of the Analects, Confucius asks a rhetorical question, "Don't studying and reviewing what you have learned every day bring pleasure and happiness ? " (Analects 1:1). In this passage, while Confucius wanted to emphasize the importance of learning, he also implied that hak (learning) is the only way to achieve Do (Truth).

When comparing Confucius with major Greek rhetoricians such as Plato and Aristotle, there is an essential difference in how they deal with their predecessors' ideas. Confucius is a constructive thinker who accepts his predecessors' ideas as part of his philosophy without criticizing them much, whereas Plato and Aristotle reject the thoughts of those who preceded them, notably the sophists. Confucius frequently quotes past sages and kings' sayings in his teaching in a positive way. On the other hand, Plato criticizes and even humiliates Gorgias, and his concept of rhetoric in the Gorgias, and Aristotle's Rhetoric is quite different from his teacher's ideas of rhetoric. It can be said that Plato and Aristotle are dialectical thinkers who refuse to accept the sophists' thoughts as they are; in the West, in any case, a change of perspectives occurs with almost every subsequent philosopher. In other words, each school of thought in Western philosophy rejects the one which precedes it; in contrast, Confucian scholars use their predecessors' ideas to develop their own. This difference provides an important insight into the development of scholarly study between the East Asian, and the Anglo-European and the North American academic fields. East Asian scholars, like Confucius, have a tendency not to challenge but to admire and emulate their forerunners, while the goal of the scholars in Western academia is to constantly evolve new ideas, usually by finding flaws in earlier concepts.

The aim of Confucianism is to bring harmony to society. Confucius believed this could be achieved through applying the teaching and ideas he had gotten from the ancient sages and kings. Confucius asserted that in order to achieve harmony, man should avoid extremes in all of his actions and speech/writing. Thus, extreme action such as hyperbole and polarized rhetoric are not favored in Confucius' doctrines and principles. Confucius claimed that man should follow the Way (in the Western rhetorical sense, the Truth) to attain harmony and happiness and should always keep in mind that the goal of learning is to discover Do. He also taught that Do (the Way) can be achieved by cultivation of In and performance of Li.

Confucianism in China, Korea, and Japan

Geographically adjacent to one another, China, Korea, and Japan, share a common cultural background (Nobuyuki 1994). Culture had flowed mostly from China to Japan by way of Korea from ancient times until around the middle of the nineteenth century when Japan began to adopt Western culture and its educational system (Ho 1992, Wolf 1994). Korea learned the Chinese writing system, philosophy, literature, and art first, and then transmitted them to Japan. Since Japan's contact with Western culture, the flow has been reversed (Ho 1992).

Confucianism is not an exception. In China, the Han dynasty (206 B. C. - 220 A.D.) was the first to proclaim Confucianism as its official ideology, some 280 years after Confucius' death, and thereafter Confucianism dominated although with some troubled periods. According to Yum (1986), the first recorded evidence of Confucianism in Korea was in 372 A. D. Thereafter, the Taehak (university) and Kyung-dang (equivalent to high school) were established to teach Confucian classics. The Chosun dynasty of Korea (1392 - 1910) adopted Confucianism as its national ideology (Deuchler 1993) and in so doing, altered its society even more than China had. "Korean wisdom is Confucian in its essence; more than any other philosophy, the teachings of Confucius have affected Korean culture" (Merchant ND). Korean scholars introduced the Japanese to Confucianism even earlier than they brought Buddhism to Japan (Wolfe 1994, Shigeki 1964). At about the end of the fourth century, Wang In, a Korean scholar of Paekche (18 B.C. - 660 A.D.), one of the three ancient Korean kingdoms, is presumed to have taken to Japan copies of the Confucian classics including the Analects. In 583 A.D., Nichira, another Paekche scholar arrived in Japan and taught Confucianism to the Japanese Emperor Bidatsu. Yi Toegye (1501 - 1571), another Korean Confucian scholar (Oliver 1959), had great influence over Japan in proliferating Confucian thought (Ho 1992). Although Confucianism was popular with the rulers of Japan from the beginning, it burgeoned in the Tokugawa period of Japan (1603 - 1868) (Makoto 1994). The Confucian ethics, based on a rigid social hierarchy, were suitable for Tokugawan society which demanded sensible morality and a strong system of ethics (Sigeki 1964). It became the foundation of all educational practices until modern Japan adapted Western culture beginning in the mid-1800's.

Thus, for more than fifteen hundred years, Confucianism has dominated every aspect of East Asian culture. It has survived in the East Asian countries because its principles and doctrines satisfy the rulers' purposes to maintain their power and govern their countries without the common people revolting. As the rulers promoted Confucianism for that purpose, social, political, and educational structures were established on Confucian ideology.

Essential Rhetorical Assumptions of Confucianism

When East Asian culture including Confucianism is under discussion, it is essential that the Western audience consider that perspectives of East Asian culture are fundamentally different from those of the Anglo-European and the North American ones. Westerners must first be prepared to look at the East Asian context through different lenses. Otherwise, there will be misinterpretations and misunderstandings. The Western manner of thinking will yield discrepancies between what the East Asian intends and what the Westerner understands. It is probable that the Western analytical approach to Confucianism may lose a sizable portion of the deep meaning of Confucian voices.

Hall and Ames (1995) used a metaphor to describe the process of explaining Confucianism in English, that of ĄŽsquaring the circle.' They delineate four assumptions which the Westerners must consider if they hope to understand Confucianism. First, the East Asian culture does not hold notions of ĄŽabsoluteness,' ĄŽtranscendence' or ĄŽsubjectivity.' It is difficult to find Aristotle's concept of God or Plato's Form in Confucianism or in the East Asian culture. The concept of Chun Ju (God) in Chinese culture implies the ancestral continuation of family formation, not that of the all powerful God of spirit found in most of the religions in Western culture. Neither does East Asian culture consider the existence of a single-ordered world. Instead, it assumes that the world consists of ĄŽthe ten thousand things.' Since there are such a large number, these numerous components of reality can hardly be contained in a single rule or ĄŽGod view.' The world view of East Asian culture does not need a transcendental structure to define human nature. Consequently, rationality, the concept on which Hellenism and Christianity in Western culture are founded, is not a term with which the East Asian cultures are concerned. History, the episodes of the past sage-kings, and ancient sayings function instead of rationality, theories, or meta-theories of the Western culture.

Second, Hall and Ames (1995) note that the Chinese find an efficient solution for manipulating ten thousand things through the use of correlative thinking. The dialectical movement in this kind of thinking is not necessarily needed. Correlative thinking does not hold rigid and immediate discrimination between subjectivity and objectivity. It primarily depends on process, rather than on principles, by appealing to analogous relationships among things. To make these analogical relations meaningful, correlative thinking prefers the use of metaphoric language, which accommodates aesthetic touch in accordance with harmony. While correlative thinking is not guided by a necessity for rational ĄŽobjectivity,' it does rely on the use of metaphors and images. Indeed, they are the principal means of expression. Correlative thinking entails the tracking of analogies perceived and understood by the agent. Aesthetic examples provide satisfactory accounts of the event, and thus a search for language of substance is not needed, a language which explicates the event scientifically.

Third, as correlative thinking prefers metaphoric expression by using images and analogical association, it is effectively a non-logical method in the sense that it is not based on real descriptions, parts-whole/whole-parts relations, or on causal relationships such as those which can be found in Aristotelian logic. The context of a rhetorical situation is often comprised of rotund touches of images and metaphors which demand less theoretical thinking. Logic applied to the rhetorical situation tends to be aesthetic rather than rational. One looks at the event holistically. In correlative thinking, obscurity is found underneath the metaphoric expression. The major Confucian textbooks are mostly written with imagistic articulation. Hall and Ames (1995) explain:

The relative indifference of correlative to logical analysis means that the ambiguity, vagueness, and incoherence associable with images and metaphors are carried over into the more formal elements of thought. In contradistinction to the rational mode of thinking which privileges univocity, correlative thinking involves the association of elements into image clusters which guarantee to its constituents richly vague significance (124).

Fourth, correlative thinking is primarily ĄŽhorizontal' in the sense that it involves the association of items either experienced or physically perceivable. From the vista of correlative thinking, to demonstrate an event is, first, to put it within a device organized in terms of analogical relations among the items selected for the device, and then to reflect and dramatize these relations symbolically. Relations among the items do not have a causal relationship. The perspective of the agent (any agent such as speaker/writer/listener/reader) creates meaningful connections among the items through the association of images and metaphors rather than through actual causation. Ideas in the written/oral text are not organized hierarchically. The thesis is not eminent nor do those ideas within the metaphor necessarily support any one topic explicitly. Reformulation of the expressed text must occur in the audience's head. The audience is largely responsible for connecting the items and building the meaning of the text. Such thinking is a kind of imagination grounded in an inherently casual and therefore ad hoc analogical mode conveying both ĄŽassociation and differentiation' (Hall and Ames 1995 125). From the correlative perspective, the quest for accuracy is replaced by a search for purpose and efficiency.

Overall, the context expressed in Confucianism does not reveal itself in the formulated text. Correlative thinking in Chinese does not necessarily deliver the writer's intention explicitly. Meaning must be established from the individual audience's viewpoint while the audience diligently exert themselves to comprehend what the Confucian (con)text intends to signify. Because there is no transcendental structure in the Confucian (con)text, it is the audience (reader/listener) who makes the message meaningful to a considerable degree (Hinds 1989). Naturally, the audience must cultivate their ability to interpret these texts through life-long discipline.

Major Confucian Principles and Doctrine Related to Rhetoric

Up to now, this chapter has discussed the general characteristics of Confucianism. In fact, Confucianism consists of many principles, doctrines, and philosophical ideas. In spite of these fundamentals, there are no concepts which exclusively comment on the topic of rhetoric. Because of the way in which correlative thinking works, those notions of rhetoric that do exist are blended in with other ideas in these key Confucian principles and doctrines and need to be discovered and separated. They are found mostly in concepts and precepts about social and political ethics, and educational ideas. Among them, two cardinal principles, In ( , love) and Li ( , propriety), and Chung Yong ( , the doctrine of the mean) greatly influenced the formation of East Asian rhetorical styles (Lu 1998). Thus, only the influence of these three concepts are introduced in this study. However, limiting the discussion to these three does not infer that other Confucian principles and concepts are irrelevant to East Asian rhetorical styles, but rather that this study is limited to showing the influence of these three major concepts on East Asian rhetoric and writing patterns. Before these are reviewed, it is necessary to remember that Confucian principles and ideas are structured on correlative thinking, and thus, it is difficult to give accurate definitions in English.

In ( , Humanity, Love)

In in Chinese writing consists of two characters, (hu)man and two. It signifies a good human relationship, and thus assumes that the nature of the human being is fundamentally good. In implies that human virtues are social virtues. To maintain a good relationship with others, it is necessary to avoid conflict between/among individuals by retaining self and considering others. While it essentially displays a social focus, it also discloses ideal human nature (Dawson 1981). Confucius explained In as "the denial of self and response to what is right and proper" (Analects 7). It is the foremost ideal of human nature and is only achievable through self-cultivation, good learning, and the following of good examples. It becomes an indispensable underpinning of the harmonious society. Schwartz (1985) states:

To oneself, In is self-restraint and self-discipline; to others benevolence; to parents, filial piety; to the elderly, brotherly love; to personal duty, loyalty. It is the consummation of human nobility because it embraces all the separate virtues. Thus, it certainly embraces all the social virtues and the capacity to perform the Li (propriety, rite) in the proper spirit......In is an existential goal which Confucius attempted to achieve for himself through his own self-cultivation (75 - 76).

For Confucius, the man of In is the perfect man, and is the true chun-zha (heavenly man).

In is the cardinal principle around which Confucius established his philosophy. It is intended to be acquired through strenuous exertion of self-realization, rather than to be expressed in language. Thus, its implementation is closer to mental (mind-and-heart) endeavor than rhetoric. The process of delineating In in English is like catching cloud in one's hand. Many Western scholars have tried to define it, but none of them has successfully captured it in a simple and precise manner. It is even difficult for ordinary East Asian people to comprehend its full meaning unless they have become a chun-zha (heavenly man or the perfect man) in the Confucian sense. In is not a concept which Confucius himself generated. Bretzke (1995) explains that Confucius borrowed this principle from an ancient Chinese philosophical tradition. Because of the complexity of the concept of In, Confucius himself never explained it in simple and clear terms. However, he did comment on In 105 times in fifty-eight of the 499 passages in the Analects, using circumlocutious expressions and examples to clarify the meaning (Hall and Ames 1987).

Tu (1993) explicates In as an umbrella term which morally and philosophically frames Confucian society. But, the concept of In exceeds the boundaries of moral and philosophical schemes. As a comprehensive concept which involves all the aspects of social, philosophical, and ethical, (or psychological) values, it can be a virtue, condition, strength, process, practice, and/or goal. It is a principle of ĄŽinwardness' which cannot be acquired from outside. Further it is not the output of ĄŽbiological, social, or political forces' (Tu 1968). It is fundamentally based on the condition of a warm heart. As a moral/spiritual strength, it must be achieved through self-cultivation of the individual. It is an internalizing and individualizing process which the individual undergoes during the learning process. While self-transformation and discipline of self dictates how to master Do (the Way), the realization of oneself is called In. It is a sharing and practicing ground of an individual's mind-and heart in which self and others meet. It proceeds from within but cannot be imposed on others. Achieving In is the goal of education (Wan 1980) and the goal of the ideal Confucian ethos. Confucius' remarks about the last stage of his own cultivation, "at seventy, I could give my heart-and-mind free rein without overstepping the mark" (the Analects, 2:4) clearly illustrates the accomplishment of In.

It is almost impossible to disclose the concept of In in simple terms of English expression. While In manifests itself in various forms, English words which are intended to catch its meaning are countless: love, agape, altruism, kindness, charity, compassion, goodness, magnanimity, perfect virtue, human-heartedness, benevolence, humanity, humanness, or unselfishness. While none of them completely embraces the meaning of In, they all partially display its main characteristics. However, since the concept of In is built into correlative thinking, it is proper to describe it through metaphor. It is the virtue of warmth which germinates in an individual's mind/heart when s/he painfully cultivates his/her own ethos pursuing Do (the Way of Heaven). It works like a tree's life force; it makes the tree grow, burgeon, bloom, produce honey and fruits, and give out perfume. While the tree exerts itself to do these things, other living beings get benefit from the tree. Like the tree's life force, when fully grown in mind-and-heart, In influences the individual's action/behavior so that s/he becomes thoughtful of others in good ways. Its maturity can be observed only through the good result of action and subsequent beneficial rhetorical activities. For example, a politician must perform what s/he thinks is good for his/her public in advance and then express what s/he has done in speech/writing. This process must show his/her In.

Although Confucius does not explicitly establish any rhetorical theory in accordance with In, it surely results in distinctive East Asian rhetorical features. First, In greatly influences the formation of ethos (personality) in the Western rhetorical sense. As an inner principle, Confucian ethos must be full of In. Confucianism recommends that mind-and-heart must seek In. As a result, whenever individuals speak or write, the text must show characteristics of In. Confucian ethos must be accompanied by In, and the ethos suggests the character and nature of the writer (Powers and Gong 1994). Second, as the Chinese character of In shows that it consists of (hu)man and two, Confucian ethos must accept the presence of others (audience) and endeavor to recognize their characteristics. In symbolizes and provides a meeting place for both sides, that of the speaker/writer, and of the listener/reader. The rhetorical structure of a text must be built through mutual communication in order to develop good human relationships. So persuasion or understanding occurs when the reader/listener infers the intentions of the speaker/writer through a cooperative interpretation of the text together. Thus, indirect expressions such as metaphors and innuendos frequently appear in communication (Powers and Gong 1994) which appeal to shared experiences by both speaker/writer and listener/reader. Third, the audience, whose ability to understand the text may need time to be developed, must share responsibility for the interpretation. "One must accurately understand to look beneath the mere words in many cases in order to discover the true character of the man" (the Analects 14/5). Chen and Chang (1994) assert that a listener/reader must be able to interpret what a speaker/writer intends to deliver in the text. Fourth, as In emphasizes good human relationships, it suggests that the audience be invited into the text. Because the text provided by the speaker/writer must contain a place for the audience's own interpretation, it uses the characteristics of "the softness and subtlety of ambiguity and indirectness, the insight of intuition, and the avoidance of a clash of opinion in order to preserve harmony" (Jensen 1987). In this way, while the speaker/writer holds his/her rhetorical position back in the text? that is, the text does not show the speaker/writer's explicit intention -- so the listener/reader is free to interpret the text according to his/her personal knowledge. The result is that writers use moderation. This is why an openly assertive tone or the use of hyperbolic terms is rarely found in Confucian influenced Japanese writing (Oi 1991). In implies that the text must be structured to consider the feeling of the audience during the process of communication.

Li ( , Propriety)

Li is the second cardinal principle and the outer form of In. Etymologically, the Chinese character, Li, is composed of two parts; one has the meaning of ĄŽshow' or ĄŽsignify,' the other, the meaning of ritual action. Liu (1955) states that the nature of Li unfolds religious characteristics. In fact, the character originally symbolized worship with a sacrificial vessel. Eventually the meaning expanded to all dimensions of rituals and everything in connection with proper conduct, and then into a set of ecumenical canons of propriety for regulating a harmonious society. Action/behavior including speech/writing are expected to be executed according to the suggested norm of Li. The chun-zha (heavenly man) who acquires In at the highest degree is expected to be modest in speech/action following the form of Li. In regulates the mind-and-heart whereas Li governs the moral, social, and religious action/behavior which reflects the mind-and-heart. In works internally, whereas Li works externally. Confucius considered Li as the harmonious procedure required to represent one's immanent thought or intentions (Bahm 1969). In the Analects, this message is clearly delineated:

Master Yu said, In the usages of Li, it is harmony that is prized; the Way of the Former Kings form the act that harmonizes with the moment it got its beauty. Both small matters and great depend upon it. If things go amiss, he who knows harmony will be able to attune them. But if harmony itself is not modulated by Li, things will still go amiss" (1:12).

Tu (1993) explains that In can be accomplished through performance of Li in particular social conditions. Whenever In is activated, it should be expressed in the proper form of Li. An example in the Analects shows how the two concepts are related. "Yen Yuan asked about In. The Master said, "To subdue one's self and return to Li (propriety) is perfect virtue. If a man can for one day subdue himself and return to propriety, all under heaven will ascribe perfect virtue to him." (12:1 - 2). The proper relationship between In and Li is situationally established on the basis of kairos, which means sensing and catching the appropriate time and place for the best performance/persuasion (Kinneavy 1984). When In and Li are harmonious, the relationship becomes beautiful. Naturally the relationship between In and Li is correlative; certain specific cases are identified through unique metaphoric expressions. The norms of In and Li can be learned by following exemplary models provided by the ways of the ancient kings and sages.

Li primarily focuses on a traditional ceremonial rule which is predominately "a set of formal prescriptions or procedures for appropriate action /behavior" (Cua 1989, 211). But it is not limited to the definition and implementation of a ritualistic decree. Li is basically a principle for governing all behavior including oral/written expression. Hall and Ames (1995) describe the concepts of Li more clearly. Since Li monitors every aspect of human behavior in private and public, it works as a code of conduct governing proper actions. It also reigns in the use of language; speech/writing is rule-governed. The words chosen for the text must be humble; the tone of writing must be succinct but strongly implied. Because Li is the outer form of expression of In, it must be the disclosure of In. While Li is a cultural framework in which In can be practiced, it refers to the norm which directs to the right training for self-cultivation. The relationship between In and Li, metaphorically speaking, may be similar to that of dancer and dance. One cannot be separated from the other.

As is the case with In, scholars have attempted to define Li in many ways. Hall and Ames (1995) introduce many scholars' endeavors to define it: the word, Li in Western translations runs the gamut: ĄŽreasoning or rationale' (Cua 1985), ĄŽprinciple' (Chan 1964), ĄŽorganism' (Needham 1956), and ĄŽcoherence' (Peterson 1986) (Hall and Ames 1995, 213). Other direct translations of Li might be rites, rituals, propriety, good manners, politeness, ceremony, worship, and the feeling of respect and reverence. Hall and Ames (1995) explain:

Li is the fabric of order and regularity immanent in the dynamic process of experience, and hence is frequently rendered as reason. Li has neither an exclusively subjective nor objective reference. Li establishes the ethos of a given community. There are no transcendent Li. One investigates Li in order to uncover patterns which relate things, and to discover resonances between things that make correlations and categorization possible (214).

ĄĄ

Li includes an aesthetic touch as an influence of correlative thinking in the sense that it conveys from the particularity of any event/case as a state of individuation to the generality of the universal case, and it is also an essence for process through diverse patterns of interaction between the given occasion and other occasions with which, by means of similarity, it can be correlated. Hall and Ames (1995) explain that Li includes tracing out correlated components constituting the structure of the relationships which can be obtained in reality. The goal of Confucian thinking aims at an extensive and unimpeded understanding of interdependent situations and their potential possibilities, where the value and importance of each detail produce the distinctive structure of relationships that incorporates it. Rather than using logical applications which rely on notions of similarity or inconsistency, the way of using correlated endeavors is to have the specific details for any particular situation. Such correlations are intended to provide a set of rules in reality, and are effective as intelligible organizations for producing harmony.

Western classical rhetoric in ancient times was divided into five canons: Invention, arrangement, style, memory, and delivery. Among the five canons, Li is most closely related to the formation of disposition (arrangement) in the Western rhetorical sense. First, Li provides the norm for the rhetorical structure for East Asian oral/written text. It influences the speaker/writer to prefer an inductive pattern. This inductive pattern organized as an analogical association functions as politeness. As the exterior of In, Li requires the speaker/writer to select the polite form of the text as its rhetorical structure. Second, Li is rational without being logical. It seeks to aesthetically unfold the text to reveal a correlative relationship among the details. Harmony also must be considered in constructing the rhetorical structure. The speaker/writer avoids making a strong assertion at the beginning of the text and cautiously arranges the relevant details which include some room for the reader/listener's own interpretation. The text must provide a place for mutual communication between the speaker/writer and the audience. Thus, the writer's intention usually appears in the final stage.

Chung Yong ( , The Doctrine of the Mean)

According to Omasu (1996), the word, "the mean" (Chung Yong), although it originated for the first time in the Analects, only appears once in this book. Its values have been praised, but once again, there is no clear definition of the word. The Analects only stated that to ĄŽhold the middle' (Choong) was among the traditions of the ancient sage-kings (20:1). Thus, for a definition, it is necessary to look to other sources. From ancient times, the middle has been interpreted as the mean. Because Chung Yong is primarily intended for action, its meaning can be illustrated by seeing how a man might apply it to his behavior, Choong Haeng ( , action /behavior in the middle). Choong Haeng recommends that people should stay in the middle between Kwang-Ja ( ) and Hyup-Ja ( ). The former is defined as aggressive and frantic, and the latter, obedient and cowardly. Choong Haeng indicates the middle way between these two extremes (Omasu 1996). It can be inferred that Chung Yong indicates to take the middle position in any situation. The Doctrine of the Mean defines the gentleman as one who is able to exist successfully in the middle, as it is defined here. "The gentleman follows the mean. Avoiding public attention and living in obscurity without any regret; only a sage is able to do this" (11).

Based on the above explanation, it can be said that the mean is to seek a balance between two extreme sides in a situation. It demands flexibility and a recognition and understanding of the whole situation. Preserving the balance is not simply to take the middle way between the two. Rather, it means to be able to carry out a systematic operation of the mean (Chung) and normality (Yong) while maintaining the balance between the two extremes, Kwang Ja and Hyup Ja. The process of deciding how to maintain oneself in the middle involves dynamic thinking in a correlative way. At the same time, it requires the knowledge of both sides of any situation and the ability to decide the mean between the two. Individual ethos, which is cultivated in part by adhering to the doctrine of the mean, is not mindlessly simple or narrow-minded. While fully recognizing the existence of the two sides, this ethos has the ability to discriminate between them and to balance them harmoniously. Kairos (Kinneavy 1984) constantly works in the decision of how to remain in the middle, and the middle signifies harmony. Chai and Chai (1965) state:

To secure the mean is not merely to pursue a middle course; it demands to be in harmony with the universe. Thus, the way of Chung Yong includes a sense of justice and fairness, a spirit of tolerance, a state of harmony, and a doctrine of equality (305).

In establishing the mean, one must also accommodate the concept of Li (propriety). This indicates that the form established by Li takes the middle. In short, Chung Yong provides an access to action which avoids extremes, a condition of mind-and-heart in which logic and emotion reach a perfect harmony. The doctrine of the mean serves as a point of a meter for human emotions and actions. Confucius states that ĄŽperfect is the mean' (The Doctrine of the Mean 2:4).

Like In and Li, the doctrine of the mean influences East Asian rhetorical practices. The ideas of avoidance of extremes and preference for the middle ground in argument directly lead to indirect modes of expression. Prudence, caution, and preference for a middle ground play important roles in constructing a rhetorical style. When the writer/speaker selects this stance, s/he not only postpones the exposure of his/her own judgement of a situation/event until the final moment but also avoids stating an explicit thesis. Thinking certainly is going on, but the expression of a clear message is held inside the speaker/writer's head until the conclusion. Chung Yong also places emphasis on the importance of humility and modesty in speech/writing: To be humble and modest in speech/writing is the way not only to show the internal status of In but also to follow the external rule of Li. The text needs to show the achievement of self-cultivation. The cultivated good man is not demonstrative (Chang 1997). In the East Asian view, going to extremes means demonstrating a bad ethos. Because East Asian rhetoric has moral significance, speech/writing must mirror one's inner voice and cultivation of self. Words should be employed which avoid impropriety. The gentleman who has a good ethos harmonizes with others, but harmonizing with others does not mean echoing others. Rather, in true harmony, a spirit of acquiescence that gives thought to others' situations prevails. Thus, text must be open to the interpretation of the audience. In this way, it takes a characteristic of reader-responsibility.

The Confucian Learning Process

The foundation of the East Asian educational system is rooted in Confucianism: The way of thinking which results from the principles of In, Li, and Chung Yong (the doctrine of the mean) has yielded the current methods of, for example, major practices of education in Korea. The Confucian learning process does not take the same procedure as that of the United States. The educational establishment, the educational ministry, administrators, and teachers rarely consider reformulating the dispersal of knowledge through linguistic and rhetorical activities. One of the main differences between the East Asian and the North American educational systems is how they train students. In East Asian education, when students learn, they are not supposed to develop their own perspectives. Instead, they must exert themselves to learn to recognize how things work as they are. In contrast, Western education encourages the students to establish their own viewpoints, and then to look into their study materials through them. In Korea, the system uses a uniform teaching method and teacher-centered instruction, which result in passive learning and unquestioning students. As Confucianism promotes respects for the sayings and experiences of past sages and kings, Korean education is structured to absorb the already established knowledge or information of their history and culture. Success in learning is measured by discrete point tests (Robinson 1988).

The roots of the above practices can be seen easily in Confucianism. Lu (1996) explains that throughout his whole life, Confucius seldom looked to his own ideas nor did he encourage his disciples to have their own perspectives. He dedicated his love for learning and his energy to preserving the cultural and political achievements established by King Wen and the duke Zhou (Chou)-- founders of the Chou dynasty. Confucius said, " I transmit but do not innovate; I am truthful in what I say and devoted to antiquity" (the Analects 2:5). To have one's own thoughts is not valued in Confucianism.

The Confucian learning process was fully developed by a twelfth century Confucian scholar, Chu Hsi (1130 - 1200) who designed a system which would be able to reach "a deep and personal meaningful understanding of the Confucian truth" in seeking Li. According to Gardner (1990), the Articles of Learning that Chu produced has been the paradigm for education in East Asian countries up to this century. The most important aspect of the learning process is to read and think in order to recognize Li (propriety), which the past sages had already established. Chu explains:

Understanding the whole substance of the proper Way, he [the learner] will practice the Way with all his strength, and so enter the realm of the sages and worthies. Although the [Confucian] texts are concise, they treat all matters under heaven, the hidden and the manifest, the great and the small. If he who wishes to seek the Way and thereby enter into virtue abandons the classics, he will have nothing to which to apply himself..... Reading the canon was important as the intellectual means to a moral, even a spiritual end . (Gardner 1990, 38).

Although Chu's pedagogy is intended to help students look for more abstract and more universal truth, he is actually looking for the principle that underlies all things in the cosmos (37). Chu, following Confucius, assumes that through studying the classical Confucian texts, the attentive learner is able to understand Li and through this understanding explain the movement of the universe and hence "practice the Way with all his strength, and so enter the realm of the sages and worthies. We [humans] are seeking the moral principles in ourselves" (Gardner 1990, 40).

The learning process that Chu established is distinctive. The aim of learning is cultivation of ethos which enables the learner to be able to enter the realm of the sages, and its process is to "follow the path of inquiry and study" (Gardner 1990, 5). Unlike in the Western educational process, Confucius recommends, and Chu Hsi concurs, that learners should strictly discipline themselves to recognize the Way that the past sages set up. Students are encouraged to explore and acquire the past sages' interpretation of the textbooks because the students are considered to be immature. Thus, the reading of histories is crucial to realizing the truth (Gardner 1990). The learner should discover the truth through painful ethos disciplines (Gardner 1990) such as constant memorization, repetition, and meditation about past sages' sayings until the recognition of their true meanings. Thus, challenging the ancient sages' ideas or denial of their wisdom rarely occur in the process of learning. Indeed, Chu prohibits individual/personal interpretations of the Confucian textbooks because Confucianism/neo-Confucianism regards the truth as already existing in these works.

Gardner further explains that as Chu regards everything a learner reads will teach the same principle, he teaches the learner never to "look, listen, speak, or move, unless it be in accordance with the rites" and to "be loyal and true in every word, serious and mentally attentive in all that the learner does" (41) -- This is basically the same advice given to the learner in the Analects. Because the Great Learning (another of the Confucian texts) also emphasizes the comprehension of Li in things, the increase of knowledge, setting the mind in the right and making the thoughts true, as the way of recognizing the truth in the text, depends on precisely following the directions. Chu asserts that if a student practices his learning in the way he suggests, the student will eventually be able to recognize the meaning of the messages in the texts. The goal of increasing knowledge is to eventually cultivate a good ethos. Truth can be realized in the Confucian way, but not through the dialectical of cultivation of ethos as done in the West. Indeed the dialectical approach is not permitted in Confucian learning. The goal of effective reading is not to criticize or argue with but to understand the sages' wisdom (Gardner 1990, 42).

Chu's approach to reading classical texts does not allow the students to cultivate their own perspectives. The mind-and-heart is to be focused on discovering the truth which already exists in the text. He recommends that students read each text continually until they understand the truthful meaning which already exists in the text. Hence, repetition is the major learning method in every form of reading. Chu believes every reading will generate a deeper understanding of Li? even fifty or a hundred readings are not too many. Subjective reading is rejected: individual reading with one's own ideas is regarded as dangerous. Objective reading is not acceptable either. Rather reading is intuitive. Chu states, "In reading do not force your ideas on the text. You must ignore your own ideas and read for the meaning of the ancients" (Gardner 1990, 48). Further, reading aloud is the most favored method in class and at home. Self-cultivation could be achieved through this steady immersion in reading and reciting; after numerous readings, the principle enmeshed in the texts will illuminate the moral principle inside the student's mind-and-heart. Thus, intuition, not dialectical thinking, mainly dominates the process of learning and recognition. To reach the state of full comprehension, the student must dig into deeper and deeper layers of the truth of the past sages' wisdom by this intense reflective thinking. Because the nature of truth is believed to be universal, Chu regards that truth in the text would be the same for everybody.

As we have seen, the Confucian learning process does not use the same rhetorical training as the Western educational system: it does not allow for any rhetorical training stages such as proclaiming the learner's own convictions through linguistic and rhetorical activities. There is no need for these activities because Confucian education strictly limits its learners to the correct interpretation of the ancient sages' truisms. In the Confucian educational system, reading Confucian classics is the most important part of the learning process. There are no rhetorical activities after reading in the Western sense. The process only consists of reading and reflective thinking until the learner arrives at the true meaning of the sages' sayings. Then the learner applies his recognition of this knowledge to his actions. The purpose of reading is to cultivate ethos, and understanding of the truth leads to the implementation of Li. Reading is actually rote-memorizing of the text until the learner comprehends its true meaning. Meanwhile, thinking without producing oral/written products in the Western rhetorical sense, is recommended. This whole learning process is summarized in Chung Yong (the Doctrine of the Mean, 20): "Learn the Way broadly, question it in detail [in order to seek for deeper meaning], meditate on it carefully, distinguish it clearly, and act on it with sincerity." In short, it can be said that the learning process is intended to promote thinking ability only. The role of speech/writing has little value in the Confucian learning process. Thus, it is noteworthy that in the East Asian culture writing is primarily associated with poetry and calligraphy.

Thinking, Learning, and Meditating

Historically, in Western culture, thinking has become associated with the dialectical process of eliminating and reformulating ideas and the process of critiquing and reconstructing (Hall and Ames 1986). However, the Confucian way of thinking uses a different process. The dynamics of thinking in Confucianism can be described as a constant collective operation between ĄŽlearning ( , hak) and meditating ( , sa), the outcome of which is realizing ( , chi) through ĄŽliving up to one's word' ( , shin). In keeping with the basic philosophical assumption of ĄŽten thousand things,' the process of thinking is as a set of interrelated processes among the three (Hall and Ames 1986, 43). However, the relationship of hak, sa, and chi is not sequential; it does not follow a linear pattern. It is holistic and interrelated. Thinking leads to learning which can be considered as an input action gained from the past sages' wisdom whereas mediating is a process of realizing the true meaning of that wisdom. Intuition usually initiates the epiphanic moment in the course of meditation.

Thinking for Confucius is fundamentally holistic and correlative, "a profound concrete activity which seeks to maximize the potential of the existing possibilities and the contributing conditions. Thus, in place of any activity that merely assesses an objective set of facts and/or values, thinking for Confucius is actualizing or realizing the meaningfulness of the world" (Hall and Ames 1986, 44). Hall and Ames state that thinking, for Confucius, is not to be understood as a process of abstract logical mental activity in the Western sense, because it is fundamentally a holistic, mind-and-heart performance, an inner operation whose imminent effect is the attainment of a realistic result.

The target of learning is solely the acquisition of meaning. Confucius believed that learning from the past sages is essential for the efficient cultivation of moral ethos. Without this learning from the ancient sages, one cannot meditate. Comments in the Analects clearly demonstrate how Confucius learns. "The Master said, I once spent a whole day without food and a whole night without sleep lost in order to meditate (sa). It was no use to do so. I would have been better off learning" (15:30). In this passage, he states that he prefers getting knowledge from the past sages to producing his own ideas. Confucian learning does not direct the learner himself/herself to engage in generating new interpretations of an event/situation, but requires the past sages' sayings and events as thinking materials. Confucius' identifies himself as a lover of antiquity rather than a pioneer. Learning must be accompanied by thinking and meditating over the study material.

Meditating usually follows learning. The literal meaning of the Chinese character, sa (meditating, contemplating, reflecting) is that the heart-and-mind of a farmer is on his rice paddy. As the character was originated in the agricultural age, every action going on in his mind-and-heart about the rice paddy is sa. Sa is collective in that it includes various modes of thinking: pondering, entertaining, and imagining. Even feeling can be regarded as sa. This word holds a holistic meaning which makes no distinction among mental, psychological, and emotional mind-and-heart divisions. So, when a person is doing sa, the holistic endeavor of his/her mind-and-heart is concentrating on an event without verbal or written expression (Hall and Ames 1986).

The robust and holistic nature of the thinking process in Confucianism is obvious in the interdependence of the extended structure of learning and meditating. Advice given in the Analects illustrates the underpinning of this relationship: "The Master said, ĄŽHe who learns but does not meditate is lost. He who meditates but does not learn is in great danger" (2:15). The implication is that if a person merely memorizes what s/he is learning without making efforts to discover its true meaning, s/he will fail to act adequately in any particular situation relevant to that knowledge. The interaction of learning and meditating enables him/her to appropriately apply what s/he has learned to action. Based on the reading of the past sages, s/he adjusts his/her knowledge to apply to particular situations. Meditation must be accompanied by consideration of kairos. The Analects instructs that "One who studies widely and with a set purpose, who questions earnestly, then thinks for himself about what he has heard -- Such a one will incidently achieve Goodness" (9:16).

The modern learning process in East Asian academies still largely reflects the traditional Confucian one: there is very little influence from Western rhetorical practices. Learning is thought to be achieved at the point where the student understands the texts. Above all, students are very quiet in the class: teachers deliver knowledge through lectures. And then the acquired knowledge is directly employed to the relevant action/behavior. One result is that, for example, in Korean education, teachers are not expected to instruct students to compose either Korean or English essays (Ahn 1995). Reformulation of knowledge through writing/speech has never been a matter of concern, which means that they do not help their students with their rhetorical development. Students merely learn by rote what the teacher delivers in class. Then they demonstrate their knowledge through multiple choice tests or short answer questions where they repeat what they have memorized. In short, the educational process focuses on improving the thinking about the teachings of the sages, rather than focusing on development of rhetorical or dialectic skills as is found in Western education.

The Confucian learning process is not thesis-based but thesis-seeking-based training. It assumes that the way and its details already exist in the Confucian text, and that the learner's task is to realize the Way which governs every particular situation. Confucianism strictly prohibits the individual's own interpretation of the Confucian texts. It does not encourage them to generate their own ideas regarding the messages they want to convey. It disciplines students to attain the true meaning of the past sage-kings' messages by rote learning. The influence of Confucianism can be seen in how the Eastern writers approach the writing task. Since the learners are not encouraged to establish their own perspectives, they do not consider having a specific topic at the beginning of meditating, the Eastern equivalent to brainstorming. Because the learning process of Confucianism is structured on an inductive basis, it affects the arrangement of the details in the essay. So when they begin to learn, the truth seems to be situated beyond their reach. Placing a thesis, which is equivalent to truth, at the beginning of a speech/essay would seem to be a false procedure because it makes the assumption that the speaker/writer is all-knowing. Realizing the way provides the learners with a perspective, so what serves as the thesis is put near the end of an expression of a rhetorical situation such as writing an essay, which matches the description of a quasi-inductive style (Hinds 1990).

Rhetoric and Confucianism Confucianism contends that good human relationships promote harmony in society. These relationships are fundamentally structured in a hierarchical social order. It does not advocate the use of language and rhetoric for personal purposes. To Confucius, language is not for the personal benefit of the individual but for the enhancement of harmony in society (Oliver, 1971).

Confucianism limits the boundary of rhetoric to ethics and politics. It does not support rhetoric which shows little virtue nor that which is not followed by relevant actions. Forensic and ceremonial speeches are not the concern of Confucianism. Neither is natural science considered important to Confucian discussion (Weber 1951). Speech/writing only has value when it is accompanied by sincerity, and then it mainly focuses on ethical and political issues for the promotion of harmony. For this reason, in the history of East Asia, it is difficult to find orators who delivered political speeches, performed legal debates in court, or presented eulogies in public. Unlike in the Western world, it used to be rare to witness those rhetorical activities publicly in East Asian countries. This tradition still exists in modern days; when one speaks or writes, the effectiveness of persuasion depends on his/her reliable ethos which has the ability to find the Do ( the Way of Heaven). Truth must be pursued according to a given situation.

Confucianism holds that "Truth" exists ĄŽout there' in reality, not in the human mind-and-heart. It recommends that it is not wise to construct reality in an individuals' own way. The human ability to recognize the world as it is has limitations unless the mind-and-heart is trained. In other words, the truth of various movements among numerous things remains beyond an ordinary person's perception. However, truth can be reached through the cultivation of ethos-- the process of building ethos is not to develop ones' own perspective but to develop the ability to look at reality as it is (or at least the way the ancients saw it). Individuals must strive to perceive truth by looking at the procedure of interactions of the ten thousand things. It is assumed that it is the chun-zha (heavenly man) who is able to recognize the truth. Gradual development of the ability to recognize situational truth leads to understanding of Truth. Confucius' own learning process demonstrates how he reached the level of the chun-zha.

There are several aspects of Confucianism which have influenced the East Asian rhetoric and its practice. First, as the purpose of Confucian education is not for individual well-being but to promote social harmony, the function of rhetoric is not to promote the individual or a particular cause but to preserve harmony in society. This convention does not permit assertive speech/writing (Wolfe 1994). Audacious assertions in speech/writing is always suppressed. Speech/writing is expected to be humble and courteous, following the norms established by In, Li, and the doctrine of the mean with harmony being the ultimate goal to achieve. Rhetorical styles are circular: indirectness appears frequently in any type of rhetorical expression. Second, the tradition of public speaking has not flourished in East Asia. Unlike that in North American and Anglo-European cultures, there is no distinctive rhetorical tradition in Confucianism. Chang (1997) also states that Confucian philosophy downplays the importance of rhetoric especially in the Analects. Rhetoric is only allowed to be used in situations where "words define and reflect moral development, that beautiful words lacking substance are blameworthy, that actions are more important than speech, and that appropriate speaking relies on rules of propriety" (107). As a result, rhetoric has never been developed separately from religion, philosophy, or politics. Neither have the educational institutions in East Asian countries taught their students how to develop individual rhetorical skills. Publishing speeches or writing has not been a major concern. However, this does not mean that East Asian cultures do not have some types of rhetorical practice. Rather, because of their distinctive ontological and philosophical perspectives, East Asian rhetoric has become intertwined with, and inseparable from philosophy, ethics, and politics (Jensen, 1978). The Confucian classics present many episodes and aphorisms which display rhetorical aspects, but they are always intermingled with these other features. The inseparability of rhetoric from other disciplines reveals East Asian culture's particular ways of correlative thinking and holistic perspectives regarding on reality. Analytical fabrication does not take the leading role in the East Asian culture. To see the truth is to see it as whole.

Third, Confucian rhetoric is not focused on acquiring eloquence but on achieving sincerity (Chen 1993). Rhetorical activities must be conducted in such a way that others can trust the speaker/writer. This is because speech/writing must be rendered to the degree that rhetoric fulfills its promise through subsequent action. Confucianism assumes that eloquence is not a measure of the speaker's virtues. Confucian scholars have constantly taught people to maintain sincere behavior. When they do this, rhetorical actions will not be needed. Thus, rhetoric, the art of speaking well with all available means in the Western classical sense, has little value in the Confucian domain. Rather, rhetoric is used to convey the meaning of a message. Confucius himself was not concerned with being famous through his verbal skills (Chen 1993), and he himself becomes an exemplar through his own behaviors rather than through his words (Chang 1997). Rhetoric must satisfy its promise according to either its preceding or following actions.

Fourth, Confucian rhetoric is largely ethos-based. Confucianism is basically opposed to the use of rhetoric in the Western sense, that is for the purpose of persuading an audience. Among the followers of Confucianism, persuasive power is not primarily dependent upon rhetoric. Instead, it relies on the authority of the past sage-kings' sayings (Wolfe 1993). If an individual does not demonstrate a comprehensive knowledge of the sage-kings' wisdom, s/he does not show good ethos: S/he is not considered to see truth, and thus loses his/her persuasive power of speech/writing. Confucianism requires that the individual's moral deeds follow his/her rhetorical activity.

Last, because ways of expression of Confucian rhetoric are based on ethos in a large part, the major way to increase persuasive power is to cultivate ethos. As explained above, cultivation of ethos focuses on acquiring In and performing Li. The speaker/writer should rely on the Way and the doctrine of the mean in a rhetorical situation, and should nurture his/her ethos in order to be fully persuasive because the ability to effectively persuade involves force through a life-long process of learning. Expressing pathos (emotion) is not allowed with particular exceptions such as the death of a king, father, or teacher. Ethos takes over much of the role of logos (the text itself) in a rhetorical situation.

Rhetorical Aspects of the Analects

According to Chai and Chai (1965), the Chinese character, Nun-Uh, (for the Analects) stands for a collection of Confucian sayings written on bamboo sheets. The first reference to this title appeared in the writing of a descendent of Confucius. As the title suggests, the whole book consists of a variety of the past sage-kings' episodes, Confucius' own sayings, some of the comments he made about his students, and his reflections on these ancient writings. The Analects is divided into twenty chapters. Each chapter heading is taken from the first words of the chapter. Each chapter is further divided into many sections, and each section consists of only a small number of words.

The rhetorical pattern of the Analects reflects the East Asian way of correlative thinking. The whole book is a continuation of digressions. Each section has its own subjects, but little coherence is found between neighboring chapters and sections within chapters. In other words, there is no relationship such as part-to-whole, or cause-and-effect throughout the books. Further, the chapter titles do not reflect the content of the chapters. Even sections in a chapter appear to be separately written: there is no coherence between them. Because the Analects are a compilation whose details are organized under no immediate unified topic, the rhetorical pattern of the whole book might be more accurately described as a mosaic. The Confucian cardinal principles are the themes that the reader discovers through studying this book. The elements of rhetorical influence are its major principles, In, Li, and the doctrine of the mean. Hall and Ames (1995) explain:

A careful reading of the Analects reveals that an extraordinary amount of the vocabulary is used to present Confucius' philosophical insights in specific ways of imagery..... Much of the text is given over to the image of following the path that Confucius, having appropriated traditions as his own, has marked out for himself: extending the path, going out from it, going against it, quitting it, confusion over it, confronting obstructions along it, finding company upon it, taking one's place on it, dwelling or lodging along it, having the strength to continue the journey along it, driving a chariot on it, moving ahead on it, clearing and cultivating it, and so on (218). Comparing the Analects with the Gorgias, the Phaedrus, and Rhetoric written by ancient Greek philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle clearly displays differences in thinking and rhetorical patterns. While examples and metaphoric expressions which characterize correlative thinking are prevalent in the Analects, dialectical conversation and analytical observation which create causal relations are among the dominant techniques found in the Greek classics. The Analects keeps changing its topics in a relatively short space within the text, whereas the contents of the Greek masterpieces are consistently organized under related single subjects. The Analects presents its materials horizontally and mosaically while topics in the Greek classics are classified and arranged in a hierarchical order. From this order of presenting information, it is apparent that the Analects is arranged to display a correlative pattern, whereas the Rhetoric, for example, is arranged in an hierarchical order which depends upon causal relationships of general/specific between the topic and its relevant details. The texts in the Analects imply the intended meaning, and the audience must exert themselves to recognize the meaning. On the other hand, the texts in the Greek classics, constructed according to Western logic, convey their meaning to the audience explicitly.

Although sections of the Analects are structured in different rhetorical modes from those of the Greek classics, they display certain notions which might suggest an influence on the formation of rhetorical styles. As the Analects is not primarily designed to advise one on how to deliver a speech, as are the writings of Plato and Aristotle, it does not recommend the active use of persuasive rhetoric; Rather, the speaker must always be cautious in what he says so that what he does will match what he says. One sees a similar perspective to that of Plato on the use of rhetoric, that rhetoric without substance is flattery (Plato, Gorgias 71). Likewise, Confucius, for personal honor, warns, "Clever talk and a pretentious manner are seldom found in the Good" (Analects, 1:3) because "one who has accumulated moral power will certainly also possess eloquence; but he who has eloquence does not necessarily possess moral power" (Analects 14:5). He believes that "sophistry confounds the virtue" (Analects 15:26). So he advises, "A gentleman is ashamed to let his words outrun his deeds" (Analects 14:29). To Confucius, the admonition in a speech must be limited to what actions the speaker is capable of accomplishing because actions fulfill the promise of the spoken words. That is, speaking without substance becomes a false promise.

In performing a speech, Confucius suggests its style of sincerity. He states that "righteousness as essential recommends that the speaker perform it according to the rules of propriety, and address it in humility" (Analects 29:9), but that "straightforwardness, without the rules of propriety, becomes rudeness" (Analects 8:2). Meanwhile, one should be most circumspect about his appropriateness in manner and choice of words, because "for one word a man is often deemed to be wise and for one word he is often deemed to be foolish" (Analects 19:25). This is a traditional admonition among speech makers. "In the old days a man kept a hold on his words, fearing the disgrace that would ensue should he himself fail to keep pace with his actions" (Analects 4:22). Thus, the man who is slow in speech and uses plain manners is favored, and he who does so is considered to be near to virtue (Analects 7:14 ). A golden rule in Confucianism is "Do not be too ready to speak of Goodness, lest the doing of it prove to be beyond your powers" (Analects 14:21).

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Confucius also mentions the ways that the listener should consider. First of all, he puts an emphasis on audience responsibility when he suggests that the audience should have the ability to recognize the delivered message. Confucius says, "Who does not understand words cannot understand people. Without knowing the force of words, it is impossible to know men" (Analects 20:3). That is, one must be able to understand precisely the words others produced; it is essential to look at the routine words, in many cases, in order to discover the true personalities of others. Second, Confucius advises the audience that "the superior man ? that is the Confucian scholar-- does not promote men simply on account of their words, nor put aside good words because of the man" (Analects 8:15). Third, he also develops an idea on how to judge a speaker. He states, "At first, my way with men was to hear their words and give them credit for their conduct. Now my way is to hear their words and look at their conduct" (Analects 5:4). Lastly, Confucius recommends that the listener delays his/her judgement on the truthfulness of the speaker after s/he witnesses the speaker's relevant actions. Persuasion comes after the speaker's virtuous actions, not after his speeches.

Confucius himself was not good at formal speaking (Chen 1993). He denounces slick talkers although he sometimes envies them (Ho 1992). The following shows his attitude toward rhetoric (eloquence) is not favorable:

Someone said, Jan Yung [one of Confucius disciples] is Good, but he is a poor talker. The Master said, what need has he to be a good talker ? Those who down others with clap-trap are seldom popular. Whether he is Good, I do not know. But I see no need for him to be a good talker (Analects 5:4).

This saying shows that Confucius counts on sincerity not on eloquence.

The Characteristics of East Asian Rhetoric

Earlier this study explained that East Asian rhetoric has been heavily influenced by Confucianism although there are some other religions and philosophies which might regionally reformulate its rhetoric. For example, Claiborne (1992) discusses Japanese rhetorical traditions based on Zen Buddhism which began about the eighth century, and Wolfe (1994) demonstrates that Japanese rhetoric is influenced by Shintoism. Although they are other religions and philosophies in East Asia, when it comes to the use of language and rhetoric, a large portion of Confucian principles and doctrines is shared with Buddhism and Shintoism. Indeed, since Confucianism is much older than either of these in East Asia, many of these principles and doctrines may have been borrowed from Confucianism. History discloses that the educational systems of the East Asian region have been exclusively rooted on Confucianism for two thousands years (Yum 1986, Wolfe 1994). For centuries, governmental officers were selected mainly by exams for the candidate's knowledge of Confucian classics. It is indisputable that Confucianism has formulated the major rhetorical heritages in East Asian cultures. In the next section, characteristics of East Asian rhetoric based on Confucianism are summarized.

First, action constitutes an essential element of rhetoric, and is valued more highly than speech (writing). The efficacious communicator is one who does not have to be a particularly eloquent speaker, who can initiate actions before speech, and who appreciates conditions and relationships (Chang 1997, 122). The Analects states, " He (Confucius) acts before he speaks, and afterwards speaks according to his actions." That is, rhetorical expression is not recommended beyond the parameters that action sets.

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Second, Confucianism tends to be anti-rhetorical in the area of persuasive rhetoric. External rhetorical activity through linguistic communication tends to be minimal in that followers of Confucianism are recommended not to depend upon the use of language and rhetoric for conveying meaning. Many relevant details which Westerners would provide to persuade others disappear into action for the followers of Confucianism. Hence not many words are needed and the passages which are delivered tend to be concise and are presumed to contain profound meaning. The audience is invited to interpret the meaning of such a speech/writing and/or its parallel action. As one of the ultimate objectives of Confucianism is to understand Do (the Way of Heaven) with little help from linguistic operations, the eloquence of Western rhetoric has no place in East Asian rhetoric. Meditation (reflective thinking) and intuition play major roles in discovering meaning, as contrasted with the system of logical analysis and rhetorical exercise used in the West. A great portion of what the Westerner would use as rhetorical activity is reduced to thinking in silence: discovering the truth is mostly done in meditation.

Third, although Confucianism tends to be anti-rhetorical, there are rules about rhetorical activity. For example, speech must reveal the inner character of the speaker. The way of revealing the inner virtue is to speak slowly, a style which may be closer to In (the Analects 8:27). The speaker/writer should also express oneself with humility, not boasting. To be humble in speech/writing is not merely a techne but the expression of a humble heart-and-mind. Confucius comments that those who focus too much on rhetorical elaboration lose the ability to cultivate inner virtues (Chang 1997, 125). Inconsistency between inner morality and outer speech will be criticized, and so rhetoric must reflect the morality of the speaker/writer. The persuasive power of words relies on such attitudes as sincerity and truthfulness on the part of the speaker.

Fourth, the indirect mode of communication is prevalent. The speaker/writer does not unfold his/her intention explicitly. Neither does s/he give a clear thesis at the beginning of speech/writing. Proper speaking depends on the rules of Li (propriety). The writer/speaker takes the middle ground of a rhetorical situation, expressing his/her intentions in a humble way, mainly in an inductive way.

Last, East Asian rhetoric employs correlative thinking which accepts images and metaphors as a primary communication medium. As ideas are arranged horizontally, solid and immediate coherence in the Western rhetorical sense rarely occurs among the neighboring details. Correlative thinking is fundamentally a bottom-up process because it begins without any specific perspective. The goal of this kind of thinking is to look for the true relationship among the numerous things, which will eventually become the thesis of a rhetorical situation. Thus, the rhetorical style is naturally inductive.

Rhetorical Styles of East Asian Writing

Philosophical assumptions and the modes of thinking greatly influence the formation of the rhetorical traditions of a specific culture. The broad rhetorical traditions of the Anglo-European and the North American culture are unlikely to have any true parallels in East Asian culture. As has been reviewed here, there is no philosophical assumption such as transcendental truth in East Asia. Based on what has been discussed in this chapter, several points of stylistic preference of East Asian writing are summarized. These points provide some answers to why Kaplan (1966) described the East Asian writing pattern as a gyre turning from inside out.

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First, East Asian logic tends to be aesthetic and holistic (Oliver1994) with a tendency of "the constitutive inter-involvement of many into one, and one with many, until the entire unison becomes both concrete-particular and cosmic-universal, both in scale and in substance" (Wu 1989, 236). The logical order in East Asian culture is not analytical unlike that of Western philosophy which solely tries to dissect, isolate, and classify elements from the whole.

Second, the origin of the Chinese word writing meant to compose a beautiful poem, and this purpose has not disappeared from East Asian writing. Because the aesthetical aspect of logic is preferred, the rhetorical style of expository writing takes a similar pattern to that of poetry. Even the ancient governments, which date from before Western education was introduced to the East Asian region, used to require, as part of official governmental exams, the task of writing a beautiful poem. It hardly occurred to any of these examiners to reformulate the knowledge of the Confucian classics through rhetorical operations. Consequently, the tradition of writing poetry has affected the rhetorical style of expository writing. The rhetorical style of traditional poetry, a sequence of ki-seung-chon-kyul, provides the major rhetorical structure of expository writing. In Korea, the writer drops the chon stage, and then concentrates on the three remaining stages (Eggington 1989).

Third, as thinking tends to be correlative, writing is organized in a mosaic pattern. Ideas in writing are arranged horizontally. Because students are not given systematic rhetorical training in the Western rhetorical sense, the rhetorical style of an essay follows a similar pattern to that of casual speech, itself a reflection of thought. At the initial stage, the essay does not have any specific perspective: later, the writer discovers the on-going movement among the numerous things. This discovery provides a thesis for the essay. Meanwhile, the writer uses images and metaphors as major linguistic devices. Because of the use of metaphors and images and the use of the inductive pattern, East Asian writing is not analogous to that of the Western rhetoric. Hinds (1990) called it quasi-inductive.

Fourth, as Confucian principles such as In, Li, and the doctrine of the mean recommend the middle ground of a rhetorical situation, ideas of harmony, modesty, and humility are valued in writing (Chen and Chung 1994). As a result, indirect communication is preferred and extreme stances are avoided. This moderate stance helps prevent the stigma of dismissal by the audience or disagreement among members, leaving the relationship in harmony and each other's ĄŽface' intact (Yum 1994). At the same time it follows tradition in not challenging authority (Yum 1994). The hierarchical power structure of East Asian culture does not permit one to boldly express his intention, especially at the beginning. Thus, it is common in East Asian writing to hold the intention of the writer, and/or to delay it until near the end of the essay. This results in inviting the audience to interpret the meaning of the delivered message. Indirect patterns of writing and non-challenging modes of articulation require the reader to be responsible for the correct interpretation of the metaphor/images used in the essay.

Fifth, the writer tends to avoid the use of I-ness. The East Asian philosophical assumption does not allow the writer to take his/her own viewpoint. The objective of writing is not to describe reality through one's own perspective but to transmit it as it is. Thus, it is not easy for the Westerner to discover the writer's clear position in the essay. Because the philosophical assumption of ĄŽthe ten thousand things' affects the writer's mode of thinking, s/he does not look at the world through his/her own perspective. Instead, s/he tries to figure out holistically the movement of interaction of numerous things. This tendency creates an ambiguous distinction between subjectivity and objectivity in mind-and heart, and the writer usually takes the pseudo-objective view as his/her own perspective in the essay. The message generated by this kind of rhetorical style looks very disorganized to the Western reader.

Overall, Confucianism does not honor the power of rhetoric in the way that Western rhetoric does. Confucius himself frequently uses examples of its negative effects: he frequently warns that abuse of rhetoric is harmful to audience and society. Because of Confucius' negative attitude toward the potential abuse of rhetoric, the speaker/writer in East Asian countries is advised to be cautious in its use, and the rhetorical traditions developed support these admonitions. Rhetoric in East Asian countries, regardless of whether it is oral or written, is acceptable as long as it displays the cultivated ethos along with achievement of In, Li, and the doctrine of the mean. The produced text must demonstrate those characteristics, thus propagating rhetorical concepts different from those of the West.

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